(NOTE: I will assume that readers of this article will have already read PART 1: Faith. If you have not, it is advised that you click on the link and read it first.)
A Continuation
In the previous article we discussed the concept of ‘faith’, and the two Sanskrit words of śraddhā 信 and adhimukti 信解 which represent it in Buddhist texts. We also learnt that faith or receptivity is always a component of understanding, and therefore these two concepts cannot be separated from each other. Faith is already the beginning of our understanding. We separate faith and understanding therefore, only for the sake of explaining these qualities to beginners, or those just beginning their journey within Tendai Buddhism.
In this article, we hope to show that the same kind of unity exists between the two components of Study 教 and Practise 觀. In the two articles which follow this one, we will divide study from practise in order to help specify what these two things refer to concretely. At this stage however, it is important that we offer a very rudimentary explanation of study and practise, so that we can make sense of their mutual integration.
What is ‘studied’? What is ‘practised’?
DOCTRINE 教相門
When we speak of ‘study’ within the Tiantai/Tendai tradition, we are referring to the study of Buddhist Doctrine. In Tendai this component of the path is called “The Gate of Doctrinal Distinctions” 教相門 (CHN: Jiaoxiang Men JPN:Kyōsō Mon). In other words, when we study the doctrines, we are developing our capacity to distinguish between ideas that the Buddhas and Great Masters have expressed in different places. We also learn how to make the appropriate connections across the canon as well. This is why the character for ‘distinctions’ or more literally ‘features’ 相, is added to the word ‘doctrine’ 教 to form this term.
These doctrines are to be found first and foremost within the words of the Buddhas (buddhavacana 佛説) as preserved in the sūtras 經, vinaya 律 and abhidharma 阿毗達摩, (i.e. the Tripiṭaka 三藏 or Buddhist Canon). Secondarily, doctrine is also to be found within the śāstras 論 or treatises of the Great Masters throughout history, who represent the Buddha’s sons and daugthers (Buddhaputra/ 佛口所生子). The term “Gate of Doctrinal Distinctions” 教相門 (CHN: Jiaoxiang Men JPN:Kyōsō Mon) itself, is derived from Great Master Zhiyi’s work called the Profound Meaning of the Dharma Flower [Sūtra] 法華玄義:
「教者，聖人被下之言也；相者，分別同異也。」(CBETA 2023.Q4, T33, no. 1716, p. 683b9-10)
“‘Doctrines/teachings’ refer to the words of the Noble One passed down; ‘features/distinctions’ refer to the differentiation of similarities and distinctions.”
《妙法蓮華經玄義》卷1 Profound Meaning of the Dharma Flower Sūtra
Why understand?
We might wonder why it is so important for us to understand the ‘distinctions’ between different ideas expressed by the Buddha at different times? This is important because the Buddha employed a great many skilful means (upāya/方便) throughout his ministry, in order to help different beings. If we cannot distinguish His true intentions from His provisional teachings, then we are likely to misunderstand His message and seize upon ideas that were intended for a certain audience, as if they were true for all time. How might we adjudicate for example, between a sūtra in which the Buddha says there are Three Vehicles of practitioners, and another in which He tells us that there is only One Vehicle? In PART 1 of this series of lectures, we saw that it was very important for Śāriputra to ascertain whether the content of the Lotus Sūtra was the Ultimate Dharma and therefore true for all time, or whether it was a Path to be Cultivated, and therefore a skilful means which was true in a particular context:
「於諸聲聞眾， 佛說我第一。 我今自於智， 疑惑不能了， 為是究竟法？ 為是所行道？ 佛口所生子， 合掌瞻仰待， 願出微妙音， 時為如實說。」(CBETA 2022.Q3, T09, no. 262, p. 6b27-c2)
“Among the assembly of all the śrāvakas, the Buddha says that I am supreme [in wisdom]. [But] now with my own knowledge I doubt that I am able to understand whether this [discourse] is the Ultimate Dharma? Or is this a Path to be cultivated (i.e. just a skilful means)? The children born of the Buddha’s mouth wait respectfully with palms together, desiring that you put forth the profound sound, and now preach in accord with the truth.
《妙法蓮華經》卷 1 “The Sūtra of the Lotus Flower of the Sublime Dharma ” (Fascicle 1: Chapter 2: “Skilful Means”)
Determining whether or not the Buddha is speaking the truth as He understands it, or whether He is speaking from the perspective of a particular audience is vitally important, especially if we wish to retain the Buddha’s sermons in their entirety.
EXAMPLE: The Three Points of Doctrinal Distinction 教相三意
In attempting to make clear the ways in which the content of the Lotus Sūtra is uniquely uniform, and how it therefore differs from the content of all other teachings, Great Master Zhiyi defines the differences in their doctrine as being of three kinds:
「教相為三：一、根性融、不融相。二、化道始終、不始終相。三、師弟遠近、不遠近相。」(CBETA 2023.Q4, T33, no. 1716, p. 683b8-9)
The Doctrinal Distinctions are of three kinds:
Differences of whether or not the faculties and capacities [of beings] harmonise [with the teaching offered].
Differences of whether or not the Transformative Path [employed is consistent with] the beginning [vow] and the end [intention].
Differences of whether or not the Master and Disciple are near or far.
《妙法蓮華經玄義》卷1 Profound Meaning of the Dharma Flower Sūtra
While there are a number of terms in these three categories which might confuse the beginner, we can summarise the three kinds of difference as follows:
The first kind, points out that all other scriptures are directed towards a particular audience, while the Lotus Sūtra offers Buddhahood to all. This means that the content of other sūtras ‘is not in harmony’ with the faculties and capacities of all beings, but only with some. The Lotus Sūtra by contradistinction, reveals that all of the Buddha’s disciples are in fact Bodhisattvas who will ultimately attain Buddhahood. Therefore the Lotus Sūtra is uniquely suited to all capacities and faculties; it is in harmony with them.
The second kind, points out that all other scriptures speak of multiple transformative paths. These are the Three Vehicles (Triyāna/ 三乘) of śrāvaka 聲聞, pratyekabuddha 緣覺 and bodhisattva 菩薩. Beings will be transformed into one of these three things depending on the transformative path suited to their capacity. However, the Lotus Sūtra reveals that there was only ever the One Buddha Vehicle (Ekabuddhayāna / 一佛乘). That is, that His vow at the very beginning of His career was that all beings be equal to Him, without any distinction, and that at the end of His ministry He now once again expounds this single transformative path of the One Buddha Vehicle (Ekabuddhayāna/ 一佛乘). All other scriptures then, rely on transformative paths which are different from the vow made at the beginning of His ministry, and the goal of making beings equal to Him at the end of His life. These other scriptures are therefore not consistent, while the Lotus Sūtra is consistent with the beginning and end.
And the third kind, points out that in other scriptures, the disciples and teachers spoken of are near in time and space to each other. In other words, they tell us about the Buddha and his immediate disciples. However, the Lotus Sūtra describes beings as disciples of Buddhas in the distant past and future, and in distant places. It also speaks in the usual way of beings as disciples of the Buddha in the near of the present time and place.
These three kinds of distinction which differentiate the Lotus Sūtra from other texts, are referred to as The Three Points of Doctrinal Distinction 教相三意, and they give us a concrete example of how we might go about studying the doctrines of the Buddhas. In identifying these differences, we can begin to adjudicate between the claims found in each of the texts in a useful way. To remind us of the previous article on faith, I would point out that the only reason one would have to make distinctions between the Buddha’s teachings, is precisely because one believes that the Buddha said all of these ostensibly disparate things. Again, our understanding is rooted in our faith. Now that we have an overall picture of what ‘doctrine’ entails, and that in studying them we come to identify the distinctions and similarities between them, we can now turn our attention to explaining what is ‘practised’.
Before we move on to our next topic however, I ask you dear reader to notice something: although these three points seem to be about differences, they actually point towards the uniformity of the Lotus Sūtra. We are given three differences between it and other scriptures, but what we discover in the process of this investigation is that the Buddha’s ministry, aims, and scope were always consistent and uniform from the beginning to the end.
PRACTICE
When we speak of ‘practise’ within the Tiantai/Tendai tradition, we are referring to the practise of Buddhist Cultivation. Something is Buddhist Cultivation, if its goal is liberation. In Tendai we refer to this component as “The Gate of Contemplating Thought” 觀心門 (CHN: Guanxin Men JPN: Kanjin Mon). In other words, when we begin to engage in meditative practise, we carefully observe whatever the object of our contemplation happens to be. But this leads to an important reflective shift. We eventually see that the object we are observing, is nothing more than the appearance of the object in our conscious experience of them. That is, we are in fact contemplating or observing the thoughts in our minds, for that is all we have direct access to.
If we have made this reflective shift on the foundation of a solid faith in the words of the Buddha, and a diligent study of His doctrines, we will be confronted with the implications of this turning inwards:
「如心佛亦爾， 如佛眾生然， 心佛及眾生， 是三無差別。」(CBETA 2023.Q4, T09, no. 278, p. 465c28-29)
As the mind/thought is, the Buddha is also like that. As the Buddha is, so too are sentient beings. The mind/thought, the Buddha and sentient beings; these three are without difference.
《大方廣佛華嚴經》卷 10〈16 夜摩天宮菩薩說偈品〉“Buddhāvataṃsakamahāvaipulya Sūtra” (Fascicle 10, Chapter 16: “The Verses Spoken by the Bodhisattva in the Palace of the Yama Heavens”)
The nature of our minds and thoughts, is no different from the nature of the most deluded sentient beings, and the most awakened Buddhas; these three are without difference. Indeed in a single thought-moment of my experience, can be found all other things– for their nature is no different. I do not need to contemplate every single object in existence to understand it then, for they are all of the same nature. All I need is the shortest possible one thought-moment. In Tiantai/Tendai we have a special expression which describes this profound reflection: “the three thousand in a single thought-moment” (一念三千 CHN: yinian sanqian/ JPN: ichinen sanzen).
How do I see?
How do I go about seeing this nature directly though? I might appreciate what the Buddha is saying here (i.e. believe), and I might even understand it hypothetically, but how do I feel it in my bones? I must start by investigating something which I already know- something firmly graspable and common to me. I take any object of my experience which I feel I know fairly well. And I ask what the Buddhas have taught us about it- for if I see as they see, I will surely arrive at the direct realisation of the three thousand things in a single thought-moment. Specifically, I engage in meditation on what the Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra 大品般若經 calls the Three Knowledges 三智 and what Great Master Zhiyi called the Three Contemplations (三觀 CHN: Sanguan /JPN: Sangan).
EXAMPLE: The Three Contemplations 三觀:
These Three Knowledges or Contemplations direct us to consider and reflect upon three qualities of all conditioned things, which are true always and everywhere. To get a sense of what these three qualities are, it is easiest to look at a verse from Great Master Nāgārjuna’s 龍樹 Madhyamaka śāstra 中論:
「眾因緣生法， 我說即是無， 亦為是假名， 亦是中道義。」(CBETA 2023.Q4, T30, no. 1564, p. 33b11-12)
Dharmas which arise due to myriad causes and conditions,
I declare to be identical to non-existence (i.e. emptiness 空 śūnyatā);
They are also provisional designations;
They are also the principle of the Middle Way.
《中論》卷 4〈24 觀四諦品〉 ”Madhyamaka śāstra“ (Fascicle 4, Chapter 24: “Contemplation of the Four Truths”)
In other words, the Buddhas see all conditioned things in the world as being identical to emptiness 空諦; identical to provisional designations 假諦; and identical to the Middle Way 中諦. These three are called the Three Truths 三諦 in the Tiantai/Tendai system, and these qualities are precisely what we try to see when we contemplate objects in the Three Contemplations (三觀 CHN: Sanguan /JPN: Sangan).
Notice two things dear reader: first, we have come full circle in our contemplation. We started by contemplating external objects of experience, and then realised that all we were actually contemplating were thoughts in the mind. And now we have returned to contemplating objects, but with an eye towards understanding the mind/thought. Putting aside technical terms and details for a moment, in a very down-to-earth sense this is the Three Contemplations. And secondly, we started in the previous article by discussing the idea that simultaneous joy arises from having faith, and this is because one is certain that they will become a Buddha. One knows it in their bones. And yet, knowing it in our bones, is precisely the reason we embarked on cultivating the practice in the first place!
I point this out for two main reasons. One, faith is not a once done and dusted matter, but must be re-visited and re-affirmed throughout one’s journey. And two, to remind us that these ‘Components of the Path’ whether we are discussing faith, study or practise, are all features of a Single Path. We call this single path in the Tiantai/Tendai system, The One Vehicle 一乘. These components are not really separate things; we merely separate them to explain to you the aspects of this single path we wish to introduce. The Buddhas see only One Vehicle, which they describe in Three Vehicles for our sakes.
And the same is true for these Three Contemplations we are discussing at present. Instead of first contemplating things as empty 空 (i.e. the first contemplation), and then contemplating them as provisional designations 假 (i.e. the second contemplation), and finally contemplating things as the middle path 中 (i.e. the third contemplation), a Buddha is able to see these three qualities in every moment, at the same time. Just like there is really only one vehicle, there is also only one contemplation. And so we aim to likewise see these three qualities at the same time. And this single contemplation is what is called The Three Contemplations in a single thought 一心三觀. If we can see these three aspects in a single thought, then “the three thousand things are present, in a single thought-moment” (一念三千 CHN: yinian sanqian/ JPN: ichinen sanzen).
A Unity of Doctrine & Practice 教觀總持:
The two gates, namely the “The Gate of Doctrinal Distinctions” 教相門 and “The Gate of Contemplating Thought” 觀心門 , are together called “Doctrine-and-Contemplation 教觀”. As we have seen, the former encompasses what we study and the latter what we practise. These two components mutually support and depend upon each other however. If either is removed, the other collapses. And so once again, we should not imagine these two as separate things, but aspects of the single path. The Chinese Master Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 (1599–1655) puts it this way:
佛祖之要，教觀而已矣。觀非教不正，教非觀不傳；有教無觀則罔，有觀無教則殆。然統論時教，大綱有八，依教設觀，數亦略同。
The essentials of the Buddhas and Patriarchs, are doctrine-and-contemplation, and nothing else besides! Contemplation that does not have doctrine, is not Correct; and doctrine that does not have contemplation is not the Transmission (正傳 i.e. both together are the Correct Transmission). Having doctrine without having contemplation then, is confusion; and having contemplation without having doctrine then, is peril (罔殆). Nevertheless, broadly speaking, the doctrines of the periods can be summarised into eight [categories]. Establishing the contemplations on the basis of these doctrines, their number is also almost the same (i.e. there are 7 contemplations- not 8. 略同 VS 全同).
《教觀綱宗》“An Overview of Doctrine-and-Contemplation”:
In other words, the Two Gates of Doctrine and Contemplation 教觀二門 are for our Tiantai/Tendai tradition a unified whole, which encompasses the entirety of the Buddha-Dharma. In the same way that a coin must have two sides, or a bird two wings, or a cart two wheels, Buddha-Dharma must have doctrine and practice. Doctrine and Contemplation mutually support 相輔 and mutually complete 相成 each other. And our tradition is therefore characterised by a simultaneous insistence on the preservation of these two aspects. Naturally, this idea came to be expressed within our literature in a multitude of expressions, such as:
- “The Mutual Integration of Doctrine and Contemplation” ( 教觀總持 CHN: Jiaoguan Zongchi JPN: Kyōkan Sōji ),
- “The Simultaneous Cultivation of Doctrine and Contemplation” ( 教觀兼修 CHN: Jiaoguan Jianxiu JPN: Kyōkan Kenshu),
- “Equal Vigour in Understanding and Cultivation” ( 解行並進 CHN: Jiexing Bingjin JPN: Gegyō Heishin),
- “The Dual-perfection of Doctrine and Contemplation” ( 教觀雙美 CHN: Jiaoguan Shuangmei JPN: Kyōkan Sōmi ),
- “The Dual-cultivation of Virtue (i.e. practise) and Wisdom (i.e. study)” ( 福慧雙修 CHN: Fuhui Shuangxiu JPN: Fukue Sōshu ),
- “The Luminous-quiescence of Śamatha-vipaśyanā ” ( 止觀明靜 CHN: Zhiguan Mingjing JPN: Shikan Myōjō ),
- or “The Eyes of Wisdom and the Legs of Practise” ( 智目行足 CHN: Zhimu Xingzu JPN: Chimoku Gyōsoku ).
In each and every case, the implication is quite clear. We are not to think of doctrine and contemplation as being separable, and as a result of this understanding, we are to exert ourselves in both aspects with equal vigour. The early modern Tiantai Master Jingxiu 靜修 put it this way:
佛祖境界雖廣濶深遠, 以教觀二字該攝，罄無不盡!
Though the realm of the Buddhas and Patriarchs is extensively vast, and profoundly far-reaching, with these two words of ‘Doctrine’ and “Contemplation” we fully encompass it exhaustively and without exception!
《教觀綱宗科釋》“An Explanation of the Gist of “The Overview of Doctrine-and-Contemplation””
On what basis, do we claim this unity?
Not all schools stress the dual importance of doctrine and practice, with the same vigour for which the Tiantai/Tendai tradition is famous. The Chan/Zen tradition’s 禪宗 famous slogan: “a separate transmission outside of the doctrines, and not established on words and letters” (教外別傳不立文字 CHN: Jiaowai Biezhuan Buli Wenzi JPN: Kyōge Betsuden Furyū Monji) is precisely a claim for the preeminence of direct experience via practise, over and above scriptural learning. That tradition identifies its own transmission as a ‘simple transmission’ 單傳 which does not rely on the scriptures, and in the words of the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra 楞伽經, does not descend into words and letters 不墮文字. While there might be some irony in there being a textual basis for this stance, it is clearly a claim distinct from our own. The two positions are not the same. Given that there exists within the Buddha-Dharma such distinct disagreements, we might wonder on what basis we make the claim that doctrine and contemplation are indivisible?
Unity in the Person of the Buddha:
It is first important to consider how texts such as the Lotus Sūtra describe the person of the Buddha. Our goal after all, is to attain Buddhahood, and lead other beings to Buddhahood as well. When we look to the way this scripture speaks of the Buddha, we find examples such as the following：
佛自住大乘， 如其所得法， 定慧力莊嚴， 以此度眾生。(CBETA 2022.Q3, T09, no. 262, p. 8a21-27)
The Buddha himself abides in the Great-vehicle; and it is with such dharmas as He has obtained, and adorned with the powers of meditative-concentration and wisdom, that He liberates sentient beings.
《妙法蓮華經》卷 1 “The Sūtra of the Lotus Flower of the Sublime Dharma ” (Fascicle 1: Chapter 2: “Skilful Means”)
In this example, we see not only that the Buddha has perfected the powers of ‘meditative-concerntration’ 定, and ‘wisdom’ 慧, but also that it is with these that He liberates sentient beings. ‘Meditative-concerntration’ 定 is of course the result of cultivating the practices 修行; in short, of contemplation 觀. And ‘Wisdom’ 慧 is therefore derivative of one’s understanding 解, which is itself the product of one’s study of the doctrines 教. Indeed the disciples speak of the Buddha as being the “Unsurpassed One of the Two Perfections” (無上兩足尊) in specific reference to this dual-mastery. This is because one of the Ten Epithets 十號 for the Buddha, is Vidyā-caraṇa saṃpanna or Perfected in Knowledge and Cultivation 明行足. The Lotus Sūtra further makes clear that a Buddha’s capacity to employ skilful means (Upāya/方便) in the process of saving sentient beings, is commensurate with these two perfections of Knowledge and Insight:
「如來方便知見波羅蜜皆已具足。」(CBETA 2022.Q3, T09, no. 262, p. 5c3-4)
The Tathāgatas have all already perfected the pāramitās of skilful means, and Knowledge and Insight.
《妙法蓮華經》卷 1〈 2 方便品〉
In short, the knowledge He has acquired via mastery of the doctrines, and the insight He has devoloped in perfecting the contemplations, sits on par with His capacity to liberate beings. From these examples, we might conclude that Buddhas are able to perfect the study and practise of the Dharma. But perhaps they do not intend this for us? Let us look once more, to that most treasured scripture to adjudicate on this matter:
「諸佛世尊唯以一大事因緣故出現於世。舍利弗！云何名諸佛世尊唯以一大事因緣故出現於世？諸佛世尊，欲令眾生開佛知見，使得清淨故，出現於世；欲示眾生佛之知見故，出現於世；欲令眾生悟佛知見故，出現於世；欲令眾生入佛知見道故，出現於世。舍利弗！是為諸佛以一大事因緣故出現於世。」」
All of the Buddha-world-honoured-ones appear in the world for only one-great-matter. Śāriputra! Why do I say that all the Buddha-world-honoured-ones appear in the world for only one-great-matter? All the Buddha-world-honoured-ones appear in the world desiring to cause sentient beings to open-up the knowledge and insight of the Buddhas, and be purified thereby; because they desire to show sentient beings the knowledge and insight of the Buddhas they appear in the world; because they desire to awaken sentient beings to the knowledge and insight of the Buddhas they appear in the world; and because they desire to cause sentient beings to enter into the knowledge and insight of the Buddhas they appear in the world. Śāriputra! This is the One-great-matter for which all the Buddhas appear in the world.”
《妙法蓮華經》卷 1〈 2 方便品〉“The Sūtra of the Lotus Flower of the Sublime Dharma ” (Fascicle 1: Chapter 2: “Skilful Means”)
The Buddha tells us in no uncertain terms here, that He is come into the world to impart to us the knowledge-and-insight of the Buddhas. We can therefore be in absolutely no doubt, that He intends for us nothing short of the mastery of knowledge and insight, equal to His own. But this passage does much more than inform us that we too are to master the doctrines and practices of the Buddha-Dharma. Look again dear reader, at how many things the Buddha says He comes into the world to impart? At the beginning and end of this section, He makes plain and clear, that it is for One-great-matter. To the Buddha, these two perfections of study and practise are one, not two. We are to see as Buddhas see, and understand that the doctrines and contemplations are two sides of one coin; two wheels of one cart; two wings of one bird.
Unity in the Dharma of the Buddha:
We have established that the doctrine and practice are united in the Buddhas, and that they intend for us to unite them as well. But if the Buddhas come into the world for this one-great-purpose, wouldn’t we see this same unity in the essence or core of His Dharma as well? Considering that the Lotus Sūtra itself makes the claim that it represents this one-great-purpose of His ministry, we might start by looking to it. When we do, we find something rather curious in its structure. The Lotus Sūtra contains 28 chapters (27 in other versions). Many sūtras end with a chapter in which the content of the text is entrusted to the audience. This means that they are tasked with transmitting its teachings to future generations. So important is this act of entrustment thought to be, that the chapter in which this occurs is itself called The Entrustment Chapter (囑累品/ Parīndanā Parivarta).
Naturally, this chapter usually comes at the end of sūtras, because it would make little sense to entrust something to someone, which is not finished. And yet, when we look at our Sublime Dharma of the Lotus Sūtra, we find that the entrustment chapter is chapter 22, rather than the final one (i.e. chapter 28).
The leading theory among scholars today, is that the most likely reason for this anomaly is that ‘later-additions’ were made to the Lotus Sūtra, such that its original final chapter on entrustment is now no longer to be found at the end. We might consider however, that if we were to make additions to a text with the hopes that no one would know, we might insert them before the final chapter. If we didn’t, it might seem curiously obvious that additions had been made! Let us for a moment therefore, assume that the countless generations of monks and nuns who have passed this text down to us, were not half-wits, and that they would have seen through this obvious anomaly as plainly as you and I would. It is remarkable, perhaps in the order of miraculous proportions then, to think that someone early on would not have righted this error, if in fact they thought it was one? As a result, perhaps it is more plausible to assume that there is something about the current first and last chapter of the Lotus Sūtra, which might suggest a special feature of this text? If so, the current placement of the entrustment chapter would not be an accident or error, but rather a purposeful attempt to draw our attention to the book’s structure.
In the first chapter of the Lotus Sūtra, fittingly called the Introductory Chapter 序品, the text opens with a great many unusual portents which confuse many an upstanding member of the assembly. In fact, we find the Bodhisattva Maitreya 彌勒菩薩 at a loss for how to explain what is presently taking place. If we’re paying attention, we might find it at least a little odd that the next buddha is lost for an explanation. Perhaps there is something in how, or from whom, he receives an explanation for these curious occurences? We are told that it is the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī 文殊菩薩 who has seen these signs before, and knows that they appear before a Buddha expounds the one-great-purpose for which He comes into the world. Make no mistake, the Bodhisattva Mañjuśrī 文殊菩薩 is a highly realised practitioner with myriad qualities I couldn’t dare to describe in full. But his one defining quality, is that he is known to us as the Bodhisattva of Wisdom 大智文殊菩薩. It is curious that the one person able to explain what is just beginning, is specifically, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom. Perhaps this is not so surprising, for the Buddha Śākyamuni is said to have two bodhisattva attendants– one of whom is Mañjuśrī.
Let us now turn our attention to the last chapter of the Lotus Sūtra which as it happens, is called the Chapter on Samantabhadra Bodhisattva’s Exhortation to Begin [the Practise] 普賢菩薩勸發品. Indeed the content of this chapter and the closing sūtra (觀普賢菩薩行法經) which follows it, outline both a Repentance Rite (i.e. The Lotus Repentance 法華懺法) and a Meditative Samādhi (i.e. The Lotus Samādhi 法華三昧) which still constitute core practices of the Tiantai/Tendai school to this day. It is perhaps fitting therefore, that the one defining feature of this Great Bodhisattva amidst his myriad virtures, is that he is known to us as the Bodhisattva of Practise 大行普賢菩薩. It might also make sense then, that this Bodhisattva of Practise is the second of Śākyamuni Buddha’s two bodhisattva attendants 釋迦三尊.
As Śākyamuni’s two attendants, these two bodhisattvas very often flank Śākyamuni on either side, when depicted in Buddhist iconography. If I see one of Śākyamuni’s attendants at the beginning of the text, and another at the end then, I might wonder therefore if I’ll find Śākyamuni between them? As it happens, a very great shift occurs in the middle of the Lotus Sūtra, which leads Śākyamuni Buddha to reveal His true nature for the first time in Chapter 16 (如來壽量品).
Are we to assume that these coincidences are happy accidents made by forgers along the way? And that later disciples couldn’t be bothered to fix up the mistake? Or is it more likely that even the structure of the text, puts wisdom on one side of the cover, and puts practise on the other, and that both of these are united in the Sublime Dharma of the Lotus Sūtra itself? Like two wings of a bird, two sides of a coin, two wheels of a cart, and two covers of a book; the doctrines to be studied, and the contemplations to be practised produce the knowledge and insight of the Buddhas. And these are not two different things, but the one-great-matter for which all Buddhas appear in the world. This is how the tradition understands this unique feature.
Unity in the Sangha of the Buddha:
We have now established that there is something to the idea that the doctrines and contemplations of the Dharma are united in the Jewel of the Buddha 佛寶. We have also shown that there is also something to be said about their union in the Jewel of the Dharma 法寶. But can we also demonstrate that the disciples who make up the Jewel of the Sangha possess an understanding of this? Let us first take a look at some statements made by our Great Master Tiantai Zhiyi:
若夫泥洹之法，入乃多途，論其急要，不出止、觀二法。
As for the Dharma of Nirvāṇa, [there are] many paths of entry to it. [But if] we talk of the immediately necessary, [it] does not go beyond the two Dharmas of Śamatha (here symbolic of practise) and Vipaśyanā (here symbolic of study).
修習止觀坐禪法要 “The Essential Methods for the Practice of Śamatha and Vipaśyanā Seated Meditation”
And:
若人成就定、慧二法，斯乃自利、利人法皆具足。
If one achieves the two Dharmas [of] meditative-concentration [and] wisdom, this amounts to the fulfillment of both the Dharmas of benefiting oneself, [and] benefiting others.
修習止觀坐禪法要 “The Essential Methods for the Practice of Śamatha and Vipaśyanā Seated Meditation”
And:
當知此之二法，如車之雙輪，鳥之兩翼；若偏修習，即墮邪倒。
[You] ought to know that these two Dharmas (Samādhi and Prajñā ・Dhyāna and Prajñā・Śamatha and Vipaśyanā・Practise and Study), are like the pair of a cart’s wheels, and the two wings of a bird; if [you] one-sidedly cultivate [them], then [you] descend to the heretical [and] perverse.
修習止觀坐禪法要 “The Essential Methods for the Practice of Śamatha and Vipaśyanā Seated Meditation”
And:
復次，四禪中，智定等故，說波羅蜜。未到地、中間禪，智多而定少；四無色，定多而智少。如車輪，一強一弱，則不任載。四禪智定等故，說波羅蜜。
“Furthermore in the Four Dhyāna, because wisdom [and] meditative-concentration are equal; therefore we speak of ‘pāramitā’ (i.e. perfection). [At] the stages prior [to the Dhyāna] (anāgamya-samādhi), [and] during the intermediate-dhyānas (dhyānāntara), wisdom is extensive yet meditative-concerntration is meagre; [during the course of] the Four Formless [Dhyāna], meditative-concentration is extensive, yet wisdom is meagre. Like the wheels of a cart, [when] one is strong [and] one is weak, then [the cart] is unable to carry the load. [In] the Four Dhyāna, because wisdom [and] meditative-concentration are equal; we speak of ‘pāramitā’ (i.e. perfection).”
釋禪波羅蜜次第法門卷第一之上
We can see then, that Great Master Zhiyi (天台大師 智顗) insisted upon the perfect balancing and union of these two components, and demonstrated the continuence of this transmission into the 500s A.D.. Our Great Master Miaole Dashi Zhanran (妙樂大師 湛然) who lived during the 700s A.D. continued this transmission when he stated:
正修不出止觀二法。有止屬定，有觀屬慧。(CBETA 2023.Q4, T46, no. 1912, p. 158b14-15)
The Correct Cultivation does not go beyond the two dharmas of Śamatha (here symbolic of practise)and Vipaśyanā (here symbolic of study). Having ‘Śamatha’ constitutes ‘meditative-concentration’; having ‘Vipaśyanā’ constitutes ‘wisdom’.
《止觀輔行傳弘決》卷 1
And:
佛諸經中告諸比丘，一切皆應修行二法，所謂止、觀。問：一切須修，何但二法？答： 止名定，觀名慧，一切善法此二攝盡。乃至散心聞思等慧，亦在此中， 以此二法能辦道法故也。何者？止能遮結，觀能斷滅；止如手捉，觀如用鎌；止如掃帚，觀如除去；止如揩垢，觀如清水；止如水浸，觀如火熟；止制掉心，觀起沒心。(CBETA 2023.Q4, T46, no. 1912, p. 239b21-28)
In various sūtra the Buddha tells all the bhikṣu (i.e. monks) that they all must cultivate two dharmas; that is, Śamatha and Vipaśyanā. QUESTION: Why must they all only cultivate two dharmas? ANSWER: Śamatha refers to meditative-concentration, and Vipaśyanā refers to wisdom; all good dharmas are fully contained in these two. Even distracted thoughts and the wisdoms derived from hearing, reflection and so forth are also within these- because with these two dharmas one is able to differentiate the Dharmas of the Path. Wherefore? Śamatha is able to restrain the fetters, and Vipaśyanā is able to eradicate them. Śamatha is like the hand which grasps [the tool], and Vipaśyanā is like making use of the scythe [grasped]. Śamatha is like the broom, and Vipaśyanā is like clearing away [the dust]. Śamatha is like wiping away the grime, and Vipaśyanā is like the clear water [which washes]. Śamatha is like the water which rinses [the vegetables], and Vipaśyanā is like the fire that cooks them. Śamatha suppresses agitated thoughts, and Vipaśyanā gives rise to the eradication of [these] thoughts.
《止觀輔行傳弘決》卷 3
This legacy evidently did not cease with Masters Zhiyi and Zhanran, for the latter’s disciples would teach our Great Master Dengyō Daishi Saichō 傳教大師 最澄. Saichō himself carried this inheritance into the 800s A.D. when he said:
問曰：式曰：凡止觀業者，年年每日，長轉長講，法華，金光，仁王等，守護諸大乘等護國衆經者，其意何？答：止者謂定，觀者謂慧。夫大菩薩等所乘，不過此二。
QUESTION: The Regulations say that students of the Śamatha and Vipaśyanā Course, are every day and year after year, to extensively read and extensively lecture upon the Dharma Flower (i.e. Lotus Sūtra), Golden Light, Benevolent Kings and all of the myriad Mahayana sutras which safeguard [the nation]. Why is this? ANSWER: Śamatha is the so-called ‘meditative-concentrations’, and Vipaśyanā is what is called ‘wisdom’. The Vehicle of the Great Bodhisattvas does not go beyond these two.
天台法華宗學生式問答卷第七
We see it again in 1095 when Master Yuanzhao 元照 says:
曰“止觀”，曰“定慧”，曰“寂照”，曰“明靜”，皆同出而異名也。
It [may] be called “Śamatha and Vipaśyanā”, called “Meditative-concentration and Wisdom”, called “Silent and Radiant”, called “Luminous and Quiescent”; they all arise from the same [source], and yet are different names.
小止觀 序文
Master Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 (1599–1655) puts it this way in the early modern period:
佛祖之要，教觀而已矣。觀非教不正，教非觀不傳；有教無觀則罔，有觀無教則殆。然統論時教，大綱有八，依教設觀，數亦略同。
The essentials of the Buddhas and Patriarchs, are doctrine-and-contemplation, and nothing else besides! Contemplation that does not have doctrine, is not Correct; and doctrine that does not have contemplation is not the Transmission (正傳 i.e. both together are the Correct Transmission). Having doctrine without having contemplation then, is confusion; and having contemplation without having doctrine then, is peril (罔殆). Nevertheless, broadly speaking, the doctrines of the periods can be summarised into eight [categories]. Establishing the contemplations on the basis of these doctrines, their number is also almost the same (i.e. there are 7 contemplations- not 8. 略同 VS 全同).
《教觀綱宗》“An Overview of Doctrine-and-Contemplation”
And finally, Master Jingxiu 靜修（1899-1941）brings it into our own age when he says:
佛祖境界雖廣濶深遠, 以教觀二字該攝，罄無不盡!
Though the realm of the Buddhas and Patriarchs is extensively vast, and profoundly far-reaching, with these two words of ‘Doctrine’ and “Contemplation” we fully encompass it exhaustively and without exception!
《教觀綱宗科釋》“An Explanation of the Gist of “The Overview of Doctrine-and-Contemplation””
Needless to say, these examples are just a small sampling of the many great masters extending from the Śākyamuni himself, to us today. In each and every case, the implication is clear. We are not to think of doctrine and contemplation as being separable, and as a result of this understanding, we are to exert ourselves in both aspects with equal vigour. The two gates, namely the “The Gate of Doctrinal Distinctions” 教相門 and “The Gate of Contemplating Thought” 觀心門 , are together called “Doctrine-and-Contemplation 教觀”. The former encompasses what we study, and the latter what we practise. These two components mutually support and depend upon each other, and if either is removed, the other collapses. We should not imagine these two as separate things therefore, but aspects of the One Vehicle 一乘.
And our heavy and important obligation, is to carry out the study-and-practise (教觀) of the transmission that has been bequeathed to us (傳教), by the lineage of the Buddha’s Heirs (Buddhaputra 佛子).
Gassho 合掌
Jikai 慈海
